The region of traditional Ayahuasca use is the Upper Amazon, that is, the western part of the Amazon Basin, and the western part of the Guiana Shield. (The Guiana Shield, which encompasses much of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, and French Guiana, is not technically part of the Amazon Basin, as its rivers do not drain to the Amazon River, but ecologically and culturally it is considered as part of the Amazon rainforest, and we will hereinafter use the terminology that includes the Guiana Shield as part of the “Amazon.”)
“Ground zero” of Ayahuasca usage is the northwestern region of the Amazon Basin where Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil come together (see red-outlined area on map). Close to 100% of indigenous ethnic groups here traditionally use Ayahuasca (and this also contains the centers of mestizo traditional usage, Iquitos and Pucallpa in Peru). Beyond that (see fuschia-outlined area on map) Ayahuasca is used by a large majority of the indigenous peoples. Ayahuasca is also used by several indigenous groups outside of this area of traditional usage: the Tsachila and Chachi of the northern coast of Ecuador, the Embera of western Colombia and the Choco of northwestern Colombia near the Panama border, and some Guarani groups in eastern Bolivia, which may have adopted Ayahuasca in modern times. (See light blue areas.)
Assigning an actual number to the Amazonian ethnic groups that use Ayahuasca is not a straightforward task, as it is often difficult to define whether two neighboring communities with similar customs and similar tongues constitute one ethnic group or two; Amazonian peoples themselves usually do not traditionally concern themselves with such definitions, as their traditional loyalties and identification have usually been to their own immediate village, and ethnic/tribal identity is a new concept that is developing in modern times as Amazonian peoples organize for their rights. Multiple variant names in the literature for the same groups adds to the difficulty of enumerating groups, and sometimes the same name being assigned to several different groups (like “Campa” for Ashaninka and Nomatsigenka, or “Napo Runa” for the distinct cultures of the Upper and Lower Napo River). But, as defined by language and common cultural characteristics, there are approximately 130 indigenous tribes in the outlined areas.
Ayahuasca use has been recorded either in past or present among the following groups. Alternative names and spellings with which they may be referenced in the literature are in parentheses, and locations are given so that they may be found on the following maps from ethnologue.com (extinct groups do not appear):
- Northern Colombia
- Southern Colombia
- Ecuador
- Northern Peru
- Southern Peru
- Bolivia
- Brazil
- Venezuela
- Achuar (Achual, Achuara) – Ecuador / N.Peru
- Amahuaca (Amenguaca, Sayacu) – S. Peru
- Amuesha (Yanesha, Amuese, Amueixa, Amoishe, Amagues, Amage, Amaje, Amajo, Amuetamo) – S. Peru
- Angutero (Ancutere, Pioje) – N. Peru (note 1)
- Asháninka (Ashaninca, Campa) – S. Peru (note 2)
- Ashéninka (Asheninca) – S. Peru (note 2)
- Awajún (Aguaruna) – N. Peru
- Awishiri – Peru (extinct)
- Banihua (Baniwa) – Brazil / Venezuela
- Barasana (Paneroa, Eduria, Edulia) – S. Colombia
- Bora (Boro) – N. Peru / S. Colombia
- Candoshi-Shapra (Kandoshi) – N. Peru
- Capanahua (Kapanawa)- N. Peru
- Carijona (Karijona, Carihona, Umawa, Hianacoto-Umaua) – S. Colombia
- Cashibo-Cacataibo (Kashibo-Kakataibo) – N. Peru
- Chachi (Cayapa, Kayapa) – Ecuador (note 3)
- Chamicura (Chamikura) – N. Peru
- Chasutino – Peru / Bolivia (exact location unidentified)
- Chayavita (Chayahuita, Chayawita, Shayabit, Chawi, Tsaawi, Tshaahui, Tschhuito, Paranapura) – N. Peru
- Chebero (Jebero, Xebero, Xihuila) – N. Peru
- Choco (Choko) – Colombia (note 4) (note 3)
- Cofán (Kofan, Kofane, A’i) – Ecuador / S. Colombia
- Cocama-Cocamilla (Kokama, Huallaga, Pampadeque, Pandequebo, Ucayali, Xibitaoan) – N. Peru
- Conibo – N. Peru (note 5)
- Cubeo (Kubeo, Cuveo, Kobeua, Kubwa, Kobewa, Pamiwa, Hehenawa) – N. Colombia
- Cuiba (Cuiva, Kuiva, Kuiba, Kwiba, Cuiba-Wámonae) – N. Colombia / Venezuela
- Culina (Kulina) – S. Peru / Brazil
- Desana (Desano, Wina, Boleka, Oregu, Kusibi) – S. Colombia / Brazil
- Embera (Emperã, Eberã, Atrato, Baudó, Catrú, Embena, Eyabida, Chami) – N. Colombia (note 9) (note 3)
- Ese’ejja (Chama) – Bolivia / S. Peru
- Guahibo (Sikuani) – N. Colombia / Venezuela
- Gwanana (Guanano, Wanana, Uanano, Kotiria, Anana, Kótedia) – N. Colombia
- Guarani – Bolivia / Brazil (note 3) (note 6)
- Harambket (Mashco, Amarakaire, Amarakaeri) – S. Peru
- Hianakota-Umana – Brazil
- Huambisa (Wambisa) – N. Peru
- Hupda-Maku (Hupde) – Brazil / S. Colombia
- Huni Kuin (Cashinahua) – S. Peru / Brazil
- Ikito (Iquito, Iquita, Amacacore, Hamacore, Quiturran, Puca-Uma) – N. Peru
- Inga – N. Colombia (note 7)
- Ingano – N. Colombia (note 7)
- Isconahua (Iscobaquebu) – N. Peru
- Ixiamas Chama (Tacana) – Bolivia
- Kabuvari – Brazil
- Kacha’ – Peru (location unidentified)
- Kamsá (Camsa, Sibundoy, Coche) – N. Colombia
- Koreguaje (Coreguaje, Correguaje, Ko’reuaju, Caquetá, Chaocha Pai) – N. Colombia
- Lamistas (Lamista, Lama) – N. Peru (note 7) (note 8)
- Machiguenga (Matsikenka, Matsigenga, Matsiganga, Mañaries) – S. Peru
- Mai Huna – N. Colombia
- Maku (Cacua) – S. Colombia
- Makuna (Macuna, Buhagana, Yeba, Suroa, Tabotiro Jejea, Umua, Wuhána, Paneroa, Jepa-Matsi, Yepá-Mahsá) – S. Colombia
- Marinahua – S. Peru (note 9)
- Matses (Mayoruna, Morique) – N. Peru (note 10)
- Mazan – Peru (extinct)
- Menimehe – Colombia (apparently extinct)
- Mojo (Mojos, Moxo, Moxos) – Bolivia
- Muinane (Murui, Muinana, Muinani, Muename) – S. Colombia
- Napo Runa, Upper (Quijos, Napo Kichwa, Awa Napo Runa, Quichuas de Tena) – Ecuador (note 7)
- Napo Runa, Lower (Orellana Runa, Uku Napo Runa) – Ecuador, N. Peru
- Nheengatu (Ngengatu, Waengatu, Lingua Geral) – S. Colombia / Brazil (note 11)
- Nomatsiguenga (Nomatsigenka, Atiri)- S. Peru
- Noanama – N. Colombia
- Omagua (Pariana, Anapia, Macanipa, Kambeba, Yhuata, Umaua, Cambela, Cambeeba) – Ecuador / Peru (note 12)
- Panobo – Peru (extinct)
- Pastaza Runa (Canelos, Alama) – Ecuador (note 7)
- Piapoko (Piapoco) – N. Colombia
- Piaroa (Kuakua, Guagua, Quaqua) – N. Colombia / Venezuela
- Pioche – Colombia (note 13)
- Piro (Yine, Mashco Piro, Mashco, Cujareño, Simiranch) – S. Peru
- Puinave (Puinabe) – N. Colombia
- Secoya – Ecuador / Colombia / N. Peru
- Sharanahua – S. Peru
- Shetebo – N. Peru (note 14)
- Shipibo-Conibo – N. Peru
- Shiwiar – Ecuador / N. Peru (note 15)
- Shuar (Shuara, Jivaro, Jibaro) – Ecuador / N. Peru
- Siona – Ecuador / Colombia
- Taiwano – S. Colombia (note 16)
- Takana – Bolivia
- Tamas – Brazil
- Tanimuka (Tanimuca-Retuara) – N. Colombia
- Tarianas – Brazil
- Tatuyo (Pamoa, Oa, Tatutapuyo, Juna) – N. Colombia
- Tikuna (Ticuna, Tukuna) – Brazil / S. Colombia
- Tetete – Colombia / Ecuador (extinct)
- Tsachila (Colorados) – Ecuador
- Tukano (Tucano) – S. Colombia / Brazil
- Waorani (Huaorani. Auca) – Ecuador
- Witoto (Huitoto, Minika, Bue) – S. Colombia (note 2)
- Yagua (Yahua, Llagua, Yegua, Yava, Nijyamïï Nikyejaada) – N. Peru
- Yaminahua (Yaminawa, Jaminawá, Yuminahua, Yamanawa, Chitonahua) – S. Peru / Brazil
- Yebasama – N. Colombia
- Ye’kuana (Makiritari, Maquiritare) – Venezuela
- Yora (Yura, Yuranahua, Yoranahua, Parquenahua, Nahua) – S. Peru
- Záparo – Ecuador / N. Peru
(1) not on Ethnologue map, classified by Ethnologue as a subgroup of Secoya
(2) divided into various subgroup areas on Ethnologue map
(3) located outside of Amazon/Guiana Shield region
(4) some Choco live in Panama, but those are not known to use Ayahuasca
(5) today virtually merged with Shipibo, but some early literature treats them separately
(6) some Guarani live in Paraguay, but there are not known to use Ayahuasca
(7) speak a dialect of Amazonian Quechua
(8) identified on Ethnologue N. Peru map as Quechua, San Martin
(9) not on Ethnologue map, classified by Ethnologue as a subgroup of Sharanahua
(10) do not use Ayahuasca currently, but did at one time and have forgotten how, some now trying to recover it
(11) not an ethnic group, but a Tupinamba-based lingua franca used by various Indians of the upper Rio Negro, by some as their language; some of the groups known to use Nhengatu are Ayahuasca users
(12) although the Omaguas (once a major power on the lower Napo and Amazon headwaters) are nearly extinct, some Omagua words survive in icaros of mestizo curanderos of Iquitos
(13) classified as Siona on Ethnologue map, but consider themselves distinct from Siona
(14) not on Ethnologue map, classified by Ethnologue as a subgroup of Shipibo
(15) classified by Ethnologue as a dialect of Achuar
(16) not on Ethnologue map, classified by Ethnologue as a subgroup of Barasana
Some groups in the above list have become extinct since reports were made; some appear to have abandoned use of Ayahuasca under missionary pressure (or it has gone underground).
For the following indigenous tribes in the traditional geographical area of Ayahuasca use, no recorded data on Ayahuasca use could be found. However, many have been little studied or observed by outsiders, so absence of reports does not necessarily mean absence of use, and in some cases (as noted below) there are reports of Ayahuasca use among other groups that are neighboring and closely related linguistically and culturally. Data from forum members is very welcomed!
- Achagua (Xagua) – N. Colombia (note 1)
- Ajyíninka Apurucayali – S. Peru (note 4)
- Andoke (Andoque) – N. Peru / S. Colombia (note 2)
- Arabela (Chiripunu) – N. Peru (note 3)
- Cabiyari (Cabiuarí, Cauyarí, Kauyarí, Cuyare, Kawillary) – S. Colombia
- Cacua (Báda, Kákwa) – N. Colombia
- Cahuarano – N. Peru
- Caquinte – S. Peru (note 4)
- Carabayo (Macusa) – S. Colombia (note 3)
- Carapana (Mochda, Moxdoa, Karapaná, Karapano, Mextã) – N. Colombia
- Curripaco (Kurripaco) – S. Colombia (note 5)
- Guayabero (Jiw, Cunimía, Mítus, Mítua) – N. Colombia (note 6)
- Huachipaeri – S. Peru (note 7)
- Iñapari (Iñamari) – S. Peru
- Macaguan (Macaguane, Hitnü) – N. Colombia (note 6)
- Miraña – S. Colombia (note 8)
- Muniche (Otanave, Otanabe, Munichino, Munichi) – N. Peru
- Nanti (Kogapakori) – S. Peru (note 9)
- Ocaina – N. Peru (note 10)
- Piratapuyo – S. Colombia
- Pisabo (Pisagua, Pisahua) – N. Peru
- Resigaro (Resigero) – N. Peru
- Saliba – N. Colombia
- Taushiro (Pinchi) – N. Peru
- Tutapi (Orejon, Oregon, Orechon, Payagua, Mai Ja) – N. Peru (note 11)
- Tuyuka – S. Colombia / Brazil
- Waikino (Uaikena, Piratapuyo, Urubu-Tapuya) – N. Colombia
- Waimaha – S. Colombia
- Yari – S. Colombia
- Yukuna (Matapi (Matapie) – S. Colombia
- Yuruti – S. Colombia
(1) close relatives Piapoco reported to use Ayahuasca
(2) close relatives Tikuna reported to use Ayahuasca
(3) close relatives Zaparo reported to use Ayahuasca
(4) close relatives Ashaninka reported to use Ayahuasca
(5) close relatives Baniwa reported to use Ayahuasca
(6) close relatives Guahibo reported to use Ayahuasca
(7) close relatives Harambket reported to use Ayahuasca
(8) close relatives Bora reported to use Ayahuasca
(9) close relatives Machiguenga reported to use Ayahuasca
(10) close relatives Witoto reported to use Ayahuasca
(11) close relatives Tukano reported to use Ayahuasca
The only group in the “red zone” that appears not to have used Ayahuasca in the past or present is the Shimaco (aka Shimaku, Urarani, Itucali) (Alan Shoemaker, personal communication). There are reports specifically stating that the Yagua and Candoshi do not use Ayahuasca, but other reports that they do use Ayahuasca, so they have may learned from missionaries to conceal Ayahuasca from some outsiders.
Some indigenous names for Ayahuasca (most of these names apply to both the vine and the brew):
- Tupi: caapi (note 1)
- Hupda: carpi
- Tikuna: cipo caapi
- Desana: gahpi
- Siona/ Secoya: yaje (note 2); ‘iko
- Kofan: yaje; cofa; oofa
- Karijona: yaje
- Guanano: yaja
- Tukano: kaji (note 3); kadana, kadana-pira
- Yebasama: kaji
- Makuna: ka-hee’, kahi ide
- Yekuana: sipo, cipo; kahi
- Kulina: tsipu (note 6); mado, mado bidada; rami-wetsem (note 9)
- Shuar: natem, natema (with final a whispered)
- Achuar: natem
- Huambisa: datem
- Awajún: datem
- Ashaninka: kamarampi (note 4); hananeroca (note 5)
- Yine: kamalampi
- Machikenka: ka’maranpi, kama’rampi; wampu, wamp
- Embera: pinde, pilde
- Chachi : pindé; nape, nepe, nepi
- Tsachila: pinde, pilde; napa, nepe, nepi
- Choco: nape, nepe, nepi
- Noanama: dapa
- Waorani: mii, miiyagi
- Shipibo: nishi; oni
- Conibo: uni
- Amahuaca: nixi; oni xuma
- Cashinahua: nixi pae
- Sharanahua: shuri (note 7); ondi; rambi, rame (note 8)
- Pando: shuri; undi; rambi (note 9)
- Yaminahua: shori
- Marinahua: rame (note 9)
- Yagua: ramanuju
- Mojo: mariri
- Kubeo: mi-hi
- Piro: totsha
- Zaparo: iyona, iona
- Guarani: jauma
- Kamsa: biaxii
- Guahibo: uipa
- Barasana: (note 10)
- Ingano: inde huasca (note 11)
- Quechua: ayahuasca (also spelled ayawaska) (note 12)
- Uncertain: cabi; xono; shillinto; jagubi; pitujiracu; cauupiri mariri; tiwaco mariri
(1) the root kaa or caa in Tupi means “plant.” Naranjo (1983) translates caapi as “leaf to make one exhale, i.e, become a spirit.”
(2) varieties include: yai-yajé; nea-yajé; horo-yajé;weki-yajé; wai-yajé or wahi-yaje; wati-yajé; weko-yajé; hamo-weko-yajé; beji-yajé; kwi-ku-yajé; kwaku-yaje; aso-yajé; kido-yajé; usebo-yajé; ga-tokama-yai-yajé; zi-simi-yajé; bi’-ã-yajé; sia-sewi-yaje; sese-yajé or sise-yajé (“wild pig yaje,” used for hunting); so’-om-wa-wa’i-yajé (“long-vine yaje”)
(3) varieties include: kaji-riama; mene’-kají-ma; yaiya-suána-kaji-ma; kají-vaibucuru-rijoma; kaju’uri-kahi-ma; mene’-kají-ma; kají-somoma’
(4) “that which causes purging”
(5) said to mean “vine of the river of celestial youth”
(6) varieties include: tsipu-tsueni, tsipu-wetseni, tsipu-makuni
(7) varieties include shuri-fisopa, shuri-oshinipa, shuri-oshpa, shuri awu oshi, shuri awu fiso
(8) literally means change or transformation; refers to the cooked brew, to the visions, or to the songs that accompany the ceremony
(9) note 8 may apply here, but not known for certain
(10) no general name has been uncovered, but varieties include: kuma-basere; wai-bu-ku-kihoa-ma; wenan-duri-guda-hubea-ma; yaiya-suava-kahi-ma; wai-buhua-guda-hebea-ma; myoki-buku-guda-hubea-ma
(11) “sun vine”
(12) varieties include punga waska, nuknu waska, shimbaya waska, among others
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